The Incas, or rather, the Inca, are an Indian tribe belonging to the Quechua language family. A tribe appeared in the 11th century, gaining a foothold on the territory of modern Peru. In the XV century. The Incas created the state of Tahuantinsuyu and began to occupy a dominant position in it. This is how one of the ancient civilizations of South America arose. The Inca civilization was one of the most highly developed; their household items and decorations amaze with unsurpassed beauty, and the people themselves - with their diligence, talent, courage and energy.

The possessions of the Incas covered more than 4000 km2. The empire stretched across the Andean mountains, and its central part was located on the second highest (after the Himalayas) mountain peak of the Andes. The territories of modern Ecuador and Peru, Northwestern Argentina and part of Bolivia at that distant time were part of one of the great empires of the world - the Inca Empire. The number of peoples inhabiting Tahuantinsuyu reached 10 million people - these are almost 100 ethnic groups.

From archaeological research it is known that both on the Pacific coast of modern Peru and in the highlands (from Ecuador to Lake Titicaca in South America), various cultures appeared, developed and died out. The Incas themselves were originally a pastoral tribe that wandered, moving north from Lake Titicaca. On their way (near the northern borders of Bolivia) they found monumental structures and a small group of impoverished people.

Some archaeological finds indicate that before the VI century. n. e. in Tiahuanaco a new culture appeared, which reached its peak in the 7th century BC. Apparently, the maritime cultures of Peru also contributed to its development. For about 3 centuries, the Tiahuanaco culture was the most highly developed of all that existed at that time on the American continent. But then there was its decline, the reasons for which have not yet been clarified. Various hypotheses are put forward on this occasion: a strong earthquake, an epidemic, the expansion of other tribes, etc.

The Incas adopted a significant part of the cultural heritage of Tiahuanaco, in particular, magnificent architecture. So, about 20 km north of Lake Titicaca there is a high sheer cliff, and under it is a monumental likeness of a pyramid. In addition, the ancient sculptors recreated in stone almost the entire animal world of the Andes and the Amazon valley. Archaeologists have found a sculptural figure of a shaman who holds the severed head of a wild beast in his hand; statues of jaguars and fantastic beasts, such as cougar-headed lizards.

Stopping in the Cuzco Valley, the Incas founded a settlement here, which later became the capital of their empire. The settlement was founded by the leader of the Incas, Manco Capac. He also became the first ruler. His title was called "Sapa Inca", and all the inhabitants of this territory began to call themselves Incas.

According to the beliefs of the Incas, the god of the sun Inti destined them, his children, a great mission to make cultured (for their time) people out of representatives of semi-wild tribes. This was especially successful for the ruler of Pachacuti. He was quite an ambitious man, and luck accompanied him. Pachacuti, in addition to annexing many tribes to the empire, also spread the religion and culture of the Incas among them.

An ancient Indian legend tells that on two islands - Copti and Titicaca - the son of the sun, Inca Manca Capac, and the daughter of the moon, his sister Mama Oklio, were born. Their christening took place, and on them the sun god gave his brother and sister a golden staff each and sent them to the north. Having reached the first valley, the Inca tried the earth with his staff, but stumbled upon a stone. He went further and continued to stick the staff into the soil until it went deep into it. It happened in the Cusco Valley. Then the Inca called to her shepherds from the northern environs, and his sister went south and brought the rest. Together they built the main city of the empire, and in its very center they erected a temple of the Sun.

The next ruler - Ton Inca Yupanca - continued the work begun by Pachacuti, and as a result one of the great civilizations appeared - the Inca Empire. Each new ruler followed a well-thought-out and efficient system of government. When new lands were added to the empire, the rulers left the conquered peoples with their leaders, local languages ​​and the ability to worship their gods. There was only one requirement: it was necessary to know the official language of Quechua, which was spoken only in Cuzco. The Inca Empire was perhaps the only one in which relations between the peoples who inhabited it were built not on fear and violence, but on trust and cooperation.

When the Inca Empire reached its peak and power, the population of its main city of Cusco numbered about 20,000 people. The sacred place of Cusco was the main square, or rather, its center. The Incas brought land from all over the empire, symbolically mixed it up and placed it in the center of the square. This act confirmed the equality and unity of all the inhabitants of the vast empire. The highest achievement of both Inca architecture and fine arts was the Temple of the Sun. Built of stone, it had gilded walls and a roof covered with gold slabs, and a spacious courtyard into which five main chapels opened. The first was the chapel of the sun god. Its front side was decorated with a huge golden disc, personifying the highest deity and his deputies on earth - the rulers of the Incas. The ceiling and walls were lined with pure gold. The nearby chapel was dedicated to the moon, so all its decoration was made of silver. The chapel, intended for worshiping the stars, was also made of silver, only the metal here was supplemented with precious stones. And finally, the fourth and fifth chapels were dedicated to the rainbow and lightning and were decorated with the corresponding symbols.

The Incas were very skilled builders. Until now, the technology of their masons remains a mystery behind seven seals. In the same temple of the Sun, for example, slabs, not fastened with lime and laid one on top of the other, form high sloping walls. In the courtyard of the temple, a stone was found with very smooth walls and cylindrical holes drilled in it with a diameter of about 6 cm. This is all the more surprising when you consider that the Incas were not familiar with either steel or iron, i.e. those metals profession of a modern bricklayer.

There are practically no gaps between the stones from which the temples are built. Neither a needle nor the thinnest sheet of paper can pass between them. The ability of the Incas to give stones a complex geometric shape is also striking. So, individual stones (their front part) formed polygons with twelve sides.

Just as perfect as the Temple of the Sun were the other buildings in Cuzco. However, there is a version, supported by archaeological research, that the construction skills were borrowed by the Incas from their predecessors. For example, ritual and public buildings in the city of Tiahuanaco, erected (as chemical analysis showed) in the 1st century BC. n. e., are distinguished by monolithic masonry. Despite the fact that the individual blocks weighed about 100 tons, they were cut and fitted with amazing accuracy.

One of the legends tells that Tiahuanaco was built either by gods or giants. The most impressive is the Gate of the Sun, made from a single block of stone. The lintel of the gate is decorated with the figure of an unknown deity (who, however, can also be found in other regions of the Andes) with large round and protruding eyes and a halo of snakes and cat heads. The deity holds wands in his hands, on the top of one of them is the head of a condor.

In addition to the stonemasons of Tiahuanaco, the builders who lived on the territory of Huari were unsurpassed masters of their craft. Perhaps they were the closest predecessors of the Incas in terms of urban planning. Having in their arsenal only a cobblestone and a bronze crowbar, they erected buildings that have survived to this day, having withstood earthquakes more than once.

In Huari, stones of the same size were made, but their upper and lower surfaces were different. So, the upper surface was slightly concave, and the lower one, on the contrary, was convex. And when the stones were stacked on top of each other, they held very firmly due to the fact that the upper stone entered the depression of the lower one with its convex back surface. Thus, on the orders of Pachacuti, palaces and temples were built in Cusco. They were erected on the site of the demolished huts of the former settlement.

The basis of the social structure of the Inca Empire was the principle of hierarchy. Each new ruler declared that he reigned by divine right, since he was a descendant of the sun god. The power of the Incas was hereditary. The ruler of the Incas, or the emperor, had a harem, which included about a hundred concubines, but the empress - koya - was chosen from among the ruler's sisters. In turn, the emperor chose his heir from the children and grandchildren of the koyi.

In some cases, there were problems with inheritance. So, the grandson of Pachacuti - Huayna Capac - died of smallpox, officially without even becoming the heir. His own heir - Ninan Kuyuchi - also could not survive during the epidemic. The surviving Huascar and Atahualpa plunged the country into the abyss of civil war, which was the beginning of the decline of the empire. As for the transmission of inheritance in everyday life, a man inherited from his father, and a woman inherited from her mother. Interestingly, the succession to the throne did not include automatic inheritance of wealth. In this regard, the new emperor almost immediately went on a campaign in order to conquer new lands and gain wealth.

For greater efficiency in government, all families in the Inca empire were divided into groups consisting of ten families. Each of them chose a head, who reported to the heads of the groups, which already consisted of fifty families. This is how groups appeared that included one hundred, five hundred or more families (their number could reach up to ten thousand). Such a system made it possible to effectively collect taxes, and in kind. These were food, various tools, weapons, clothes and shoes, and much more. All this was sent to warehouses (kamkas), and every day widows, orphans, sick and disabled citizens received everything they needed for themselves. Such an exchange (not only knowledge and culture, but also resources) allowed residents to feel protected and not be afraid of natural disasters.

To supervise the actions of local officials, a service of special inspectors was created. No one knew where and when they would appear (they were people from among the noble Incas) to check the work of local authorities. They were called tokoi-rikok, which means "those who see everything."

The Incas did not have a written language, they were replaced by a quipu (literally - “knot”) - a system of multi-colored laces with knots. All the necessary information was recorded in the bundles: the number of inhabitants of the empire (able-bodied and elderly), the amount of food (up to each barn with grain) and much more. Woolen laces of different colors expressed different concepts. For example, red meant war or a warrior, white meant peace or silver, green meant corn, yellow meant gold. One knot depicted the number ten, two knots side by side - twenty. The profession of the creators of the quipu (these people were called quipucamayocs) was very important in the Inca empire, because the reliability of the entire state machine depended on the correctness of the record. Kipukamajoki combined the qualities of an artist, logistician and accountant. How important the preservation and interpretation of statistics was to the Incas is evidenced by the fact that the creators of the quipu enjoyed privileges, in particular, they did not pay taxes, but at the same time they had a huge responsibility, since the mistake they made entailed a failure in work and provided for the death penalty as punishment.

The researchers proved that gradually the colored nodules evolved into a complex three-dimensional writing system that resembled Braille for the blind. It turned out that the kipu contains more than one and a half thousand individual characters. This is twice as much as that of the Egyptians and Maya, and slightly more than the Sumero-Babylonian script. Mathematical research has shown that the quipu uses a binary system that resembles the basis of a computer language.

The Incas created a whole network of roads with a total length of more than 240,000 km, which connected the most remote or hard-to-reach areas of the country. Particularly impressive is the mountain road through the Andes from Cusco to the current capital of Ecuador - Quito. On wide highways, stations (tambo) were located at certain distances so that runners-couriers (chaskas) could rest and refresh themselves. Hardy people were chosen for this at a young age. They had to be able to run fast in the rarefied air of the highlands. Headdresses with fluttering feathers and a twisted sea shell were invariable attributes of couriers. Chaska, approaching the place where the next courier was waiting for him, blew into the shell and ran for some time next to his reliever, who memorized the content of the message. So this kind of relay race took place.

The Incas proved to be unsurpassed masters in creating a system of irrigation canals. In terms of length and effectiveness, it was unmatched. Irrigation facilities of the Incas survived the centuries. It should be noted that the Incas adopted the principles of irrigating the fields from the Chimuor people they conquered.

The city of Chan Chan, the capital of the kingdom of Chimuor, was one of the most beautiful in South America. It had over 36,000 inhabitants. Chimuor artisans made gold items that can be recognized as genuine works of art. When the Incas annexed the Chimuor to their empire, they adopted to a large extent the skill and talent of this people, and to a certain extent became the pupils of their subjects.

The fields of the Incas were terrace-like systems, which were fortified on the mountain slopes with stone bastions. The earth belonged to the sun, the people and the emperor. A family Inca could claim a personal plot (tupu). The land that belonged to the god of the sun could be allocated to a resident of the empire if he had an addition to the family. Land could not be sold, it was bequeathed only to children. The inhabitants of the empire cultivated the fields together. First of all, the lands of the sun god were subject to cultivation, then the lands of the poor, the disabled, widows and orphans, then their own, and last but not least, the princely and royal allotments. In the same sequence, the harvest was collected and poured into public barns, which were divided into common and belonging to the sun god. From the latter, bread was given to the army, officials and people who performed public works. Part of the harvest, which belonged to the sun god, was associated with the cost of priestesses and priests. If the year was lean, then the reserves of the sun god were used.

The common people did not have cattle, it was the privilege of the king and god. The Incas used llamas and alpacas as beasts of burden. The state itself took care of the animals. Thus, the Inca royal dynasty, like that of the ancient Egyptians and Chinese, was closely associated with agriculture.

The Incas were good doctors. They achieved especially great success in surgery, in particular in such a field as neurosurgery. During archaeological excavations in Peru, surgical instruments were found that were intended for trepanation, that is, for opening the skull.

In order for the inhabitants of the empire to feel protected from natural disasters, famine and other extreme situations, the rulers ordered them to lead a regulated lifestyle. This primarily meant that no one spent time in idleness, everyone worked for the good of the empire. Only the elderly, who reached 50 years of age, were exempted from taxation and labor service. Nevertheless, they also participated in public works to the best of their ability. For example, they looked after children, cooked food, prepared brushwood, or did some other easy work.

The Incas were exceptionally clean people. This trait of theirs manifested itself in everything from the cleanliness of the cities themselves to the dwellings of every inhabitant of the empire.

The Incas had a special inspection that checked whether the hostess of the house complied with the established standard of cleanliness. On a certain day, an inspection was appointed, and at this time the reed mat over the front door had to be raised. The inspector observed how the woman prepared food, cleaned the house, did the laundry and did any other work. The mistress of the house, who did not cope (according to the inspector) with her duties, was punished. She had to eat all the dirt swept out of the house in front of all those who were watching, and the owner had to drink the dirty water left after bathing all family members.

The Incas did not have divorces, all marriages they entered into were considered for life. This applied to both the nobility and the common people. The Incas did not have prisons either, since any crime (violence, theft, robbery and other serious deviation from social norms) was immediately punishable by death.

The aristocratic part of society wore tunics: for women they were to the heels, for men - to the knees. At the waist, the tunic was intercepted with a belt with a heraldic sign. Sometimes the belt was replaced by a mantle attached with pins. One of the main decorations of the Incas were large silver or gold discs worn in the earlobes. Their considerable weight significantly delayed the ears.

The Incas had a school in which not only the sons of the nobility studied, but also the young children of the rulers of the conquered kingdoms. She was in Cusco. Students comprehended oratory, military science, religion, some sciences (for example, history, geometry). The training ended with exams, in which sixteen-year-old young people were subjected to rather difficult tests, demonstrating their knowledge, strength, dexterity and courage.

The exams lasted about thirty days. They took place in an open area, and everyone could watch their progress. The trials included a six-day fast (those who fasted were allowed to consume only water and herbs), followed by a 7.2 km race. The next test was the ability to stand still while the fencer inflicted injections and cuts on the subjects. In addition, there was a more severe test of strength, when strong blows were applied to their arms and legs with vine whips. These actions tested the ability of graduates to withstand any pain. Anyone who could not stand it, showing signs of suffering with facial expressions or gestures, was immediately expelled. Often there were cases of serious injuries and even deaths during the exams.

The climax of the trials was the knighting of former students. The ruler of the Incas personally pierced the young men who knelt down in front of him, earlobes with a golden needle. Having received gold discs as caste marks, young people (both the sons of the Incas and the sons of vassals - the curacs) became representatives of the ruling class.

Girls were trained separately, this happened in monasteries. Special people ensured that the number of such girls in the empire reached a certain figure - not less than 15,000. Agents traveled to all regions of the country and, paying attention to the origin of the girl, her abilities and beauty, selected those suitable for training. Elderly mentors (mamakona) worked with the pupils. Particular attention in the learning process was paid to the ability to dye fabrics and weaving, since it was the girls who made thin fabrics (kumbi) from alpaca wool. These fabrics were used to make clothes for the emperor and his koyi.

Education in the monastery lasted 3 years, after which the emperor himself chose among the pupils wives for himself and his nobles. Those of the girls who were not chosen became priestesses. They lived like noble ladies in houses in the main square near the temple of Koraksang in Cusco and enjoyed universal respect.

The Incas attached great importance to holidays. First of all, during these days, the connection between the people and the emperor was strengthened. In addition, during such events, people got rid of accumulated emotions, and finally the holiday was presented to the people as a gift for their hard work and loyalty to the emperor.

The ruler himself led the holiday. Firstly, his duties included providing all participants with food and drinks; secondly, the program included musical performances, dances, demonstration fights, religious activities - all this took place under his patronage.

One of the indispensable components of the holiday was the reading of poems in different genres. These were both religious poetry, and love ballads (more often about unrequited love), and heroic tales (about exploits). All this was passed from mouth to mouth, supplemented by a vivid description of valleys, mountain peaks and gorges. No less interesting was the musical performance, which consisted of dances (usually of a ritual nature), which were accompanied by mournful monotonous chants.

According to some reports, the Incas had about forty different dances. One of the most spectacular was the so-called jumping dance. It was performed by men in masks, in their hands they held the skins of animals.

The music of the Incas stood out primarily for its rhythmic diversity and richness. Hence, they have a considerable number of different percussion instruments. These are large and snare drums, as well as many flutes, representing a group of wind instruments. Flutes were made from animal bones or reeds, some were made from clay or condor feathers.

Especially popular was the reed-cut ken flute, which had eight finger holes. The musician during the performance alternately opened and closed them. In addition, it was not uncommon for the Incas to play flutes tied together.

In addition to flutes, the Inca's favorite instrument was the trumpet. There were even more of them than flutes, and they were made from wood, hollowed gourds and sea shells.

Every month, the Incas held three holidays. The most important of them took place in December - in the first month of the rainy season. It was called kopak raimi, i.e. "big holiday". During it (it was celebrated in Cusco), a ceremony of initiation of young men into men took place. The holiday was so seriously and strictly revered that only the Incas remained in Cuzco, and all the rest (not the Incas) left the capital for this time. At the end of the ceremony, they again returned to the city and confirmed their loyalty to the throne through the rite of communion.

To appease the gods, the Incas made human sacrifices. Usually they were children. The victim was then mummified; researchers managed to find more than four hundred similar ritual burials.

In 1995, archaeologists discovered a well-preserved ritual sacrifice, its historical age was about 500 years. It was a girl of 12-14 years old. Anthropologists conducted a lot of research on her, as a result of which they managed to find out the state of health, the diet of the Incas and a number of other details. This data was obtained for the first time, since the victim was frozen, with preserved internal organs, and not a dried-up mummy, which were the previous finds. It is interesting that the ritual figurines and several bright feathers were located on the top of the Nevada Sabankaya volcano near Cabanaconde (Peruvian village), and the body itself was in the crater of the volcano. Another intriguing fact was that before embarking on a difficult expedition, the American scientist Johan Reinhard and his guide Miguel Zarata offered corn beer to the spirits of the mountains. The ancient rite worked and brought luck to the anthropologist.

The Incas mummified the deceased rulers and their koyas. The composition that they used for embalming has not yet been clarified. After mummification (wrapping in fabrics of the highest quality cotton, impregnated with the appropriate composition), the mummies were dressed in elegant clothes.

There were special servants who looked after the mummies, fed and watered them. Mummies even "went" to visit each other (the servants carried them on a stretcher) and to the emperor, were present at the holidays and were the first to "pronounce" toasts. The care of mummies was carried out at the expense of the state and was quite ruinous. Gradually, this custom ceased to exist.

Scientific research has proven that there was no gold in the Andes, therefore, the Incas had to get it from other areas of the empire. And one of these provinces was the Amazon. Even before the arrival of the Incas, the inhabitants of the local tribes laid trails on the Amazonian lowland. The Incas, on the other hand, connected them by building a network of roads that connected isolated and hard-to-reach areas.

A feature of the Inca transport network was the presence of suspension bridges in it. They were made from ropes and woven mats and were hung over rivers, gorges and abysses, some of which were up to 30 m wide. Some of the roads built by the Incas are still in use. They are being restored and refurbished.

In addition to various goods (tropical fruits, honey, colorful parrot feathers, etc.), which were brought to the Inca capital by caravans consisting of numerous lamas, gold was the main commodity. It was it that was the main reason why the main person of the Spanish conquest campaigns - Francisco Pizarro - decided to personally undertake an expedition to South America to make sure of its existence.

Francisco Pizarro was a semi-literate military man. He participated in the suppression of the rebellion of the Taino Indian tribe on the island of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic) and Haiti. His first two attempts to enter the land of the Incas ended in failure. But in 1527 he reached the city of Tulebes. Seeing temples trimmed with precious metals, luxurious gardens with natural flowers and their copies made of gold, Pizarro realized that the “golden land” was not fiction, but reality. He returned to Spain and told Charles V about the richest land, the simplicity and friendliness of its inhabitants. The king gave him the title of governor and captain-general in all the lands conquered by him in the future.

Pizarro recruited about 160 conquistadors. Charles V supplied them with muskets, crossbows, spears and cannons. In 1532, Pizarro and his team again arrived on the land of the Incas. Just at that time, a civil war broke out between Huascar and Atahualpa for possession of the position of Sapa Inca (translated as “the only, unique Inca”). The Spaniards, even with such a small number, managed to defeat the Incas, weakened by civil strife and a smallpox epidemic.

Back in 1493, Columbus wrote about the cordiality and friendliness of the inhabitants of the New World: “They do not refuse anything, whatever you ask of them; on the contrary, they willingly share with everyone and treat everyone so kindly that they would be ready to give their hearts. What a contrast to these lines about the character traits of the Incas, are the intentions of the Spaniards set out in the "Requisition" of 1509: “We will make war against you with all the ways and means that we have; we will subject you to the church and its dignitaries and force you into obedience; we will take you, your wives and children captive and enslave you!”

When Pizarro and a handful of adventurers first saw the 30,000-strong Inca army, the Spaniards realized that in open battle they could not defeat them. Therefore, the conquistadors went to the trick. An agreement was reached that Atahualpa would meet the Spaniards as friends. But when the Great Inca, dressed in luxurious clothes sparkling with gold, accompanied by his military leaders, advisers and priests, went out to meet Pizarro, then at the signal of the monk Valverde, the conquistadors jumped out of the ambush, killed Atahualpa's entire entourage, and the Inca himself was taken prisoner.

In this terrible massacre, which Pizarro arranged, 3,000 Incas were killed, and the rest fled in panic, as they saw that the one who was for them both king and god was taken prisoner. The Spaniards took advantage of the fact that there were no weapons in Atahualpa's retinue, because a solemn meeting was being prepared.

Meanwhile, Pizarro's team did not lose a single soldier. The captive Atahualpa was kept in royal conditions, he learned to speak Spanish in a short time. The smart Inca realized that gold was probably the only way out for him to stay alive. He offered an unimaginable ransom for his life and freedom - a room measuring 7 by 6 m, which will be covered with gold just above the head of an adult.

The Incas were indifferent to gold in the sense that, unlike fabrics, it never represented an exchange material value for them. They called gold "the sweat of the sun", from which they made beautiful things, real works of art.

The Spaniards were amazed at such untold wealth. But with this proposal, Atahualpa signed his own death warrant: the Spaniards again broke their word, and as soon as the ransom was received, Pizarro sentenced Inca to death - he was to be burned. Subsequently, the Spaniard replaced the burning with death by hanging.

The Spaniards melted down the ransom for Atahualpa, as a result they received over 6,000 kg of gold and almost 12,000 kg of silver. In the same way, on the orders of Charles V, all products made of precious metals by Inca craftsmen were melted down. The Spaniards destroyed temples and palaces, and the inhabitants were forced to work in mines and mines, to lift weights high into the mountains. As a result, the population of the country decreased from 7 million people to 500,000.

The surviving Incas, under the leadership of one of the last kings - Manco - went into the jungle and built the city of Vilcabamba there.

It consisted of three hundred relatively small residential buildings and sixty stately stone structures; roads and canals were laid in the city. Periodically, the Incas attacked their enslavers, striking at their outposts. This continued until 1572. When the conquerors decided to deal with the surviving Incas and came to Vilcabamba, they saw only ashes instead of the city. The three sons of Manco, who took turns ruling the city after their father's death, burned it down before leaving. The last leader of the Incas - Tupac Amaru was captured by the Spaniards when they carried out their punitive expeditions, deeper and deeper into the jungle. Tupac Amaru was beheaded in the main square in Cusco. Thus the Inca Empire ceased to exist.

The descendants of the once great Inca Empire currently live in Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador. Their number is about 18 million people. Most of the inhabitants of these states speak Quechua. Peruvians, Bolivians and Ecuadorians believe in the restoration of the former glory and power of the Incas. Schoolchildren in Peru know by heart all the rulers of the Inca Empire. The Peruvians also believe that one of the sons of the sun, beheaded by the Spaniards Incarr, according to legend, will return to them and restore their former civilization. Even foods that were once part of the Inca diet are now becoming more and more popular. These are amaranth, araxa, nyunyas, oka, cherimoya, etc.

Tahuantinsuya (“the land of four quarters,” as the Incas themselves called their possessions) demonstrated the will and mind of their people, who created a highly developed civilization in less than a century. And this despite the fact that the Incas did not know wheeled vehicles and writing. The birth, development, rise and fall of the Inca empire were like an explosion, the echo of which has reached our days.

The Incas(Inca) - a tribe from the Cusco Valley, whose mighty civilization existed in the "pre-Columbian" era on the South American continent. The Incas managed to create a powerful empire that changed its appearance and conquered many peoples.

The Incas themselves called their empire Tahuantinsuyu(Four cardinal directions), because 4 roads left Cusco in different directions.

The Indians called their ruler Inca, which means "lord", "king". Then “Incas” began to be called all representatives of the ruling class, and with the invasion of the conquerors, the entire Indian population of the Tahuantinsuyu empire.

Creation of the Great Inca Empire

Thanks to the findings of archaeologists, it is obvious that the Inca civilization arose in 1200-1300. At the end of the 11th century, due to the drought that raged in the Andes for more than 100 years, neighboring, stronger tribes lost their power in battles for water and food.

Inspired by success, the Inca rulers turned their eyes to an abundant land - a spacious plateau with. And Pachacutec-Inca-Yupanqui, one of the great rulers of the Incas, in the 15th century undertook a military campaign to the south.

The population of the lakeside states was about 400 thousand people. The slopes of the mountains are pierced with gold and silver veins, fat herds of llamas and alpacas grazed on flowering meadows. Llamas and alpacas are meat, wool and leather, that is, military rations and uniforms.

Pachacutec conquered the southern rulers one by one, pushing the boundaries of his possessions, which became one of the largest empires on the planet. The number of subjects of the empire reached about 10 million people.

Victories in the military field were only the first stage on the path to power, after the soldiers, officials, builders and artisans set to work.

Incas: Wise Rule

If an uprising broke out in some province of the Incas, the rulers undertook the resettlement of people: they resettled the inhabitants of remote villages in new cities located near the built roads. They were ordered to build warehouses along the roads for regular troops, which were filled by subjects with the necessary provisions. The Inca rulers were brilliant organizers.

The Inca civilization reached an unprecedented peak. Stonemasons erected architectural masterpieces, engineers turned disparate roads into a single system that connected all parts of the empire. Irrigation canals were created, agricultural terraces were laid out on the slopes of the mountains, about 70 types of crops were grown there and significant provisions were stored in storage facilities. The viceroys were masters of inventory: they kept abreast of the contents of every vault of the vast empire, keeping records using a kippah - analogous to the computer code of the Incas - a bunch of multi-colored threads with special combinations of knots.

The rulers of the Incas were quite harsh, but fair: they allowed the conquered peoples to maintain their traditions. The main social unit was the family. Each group of 20 families had a leader who was subordinate to the leader, who already headed 50 families, and so on - up to the Ruler of the Inca.

The social structure of civilization

The Inca Empire had such a social structure: everyone worked here, with the exception of the youngest and deepest old people. Each family had its own cultivated land plot. People weaved, sewed their own clothes, shoes or sandals, made dishes and jewelry from gold and silver.

The inhabitants of the empire did not have personal freedom, the rulers decided everything for them: what to eat, what clothes to wear and where to work. The Incas were wonderful farmers, they built grandiose aqueducts to irrigate fields with water from mountain rivers, growing many valuable crops.

Many buildings erected by the Incas still stand today. The Incas created many original bridges from wicker and vines twisted into thick ropes. The Incas were born potters and weavers:
they wove the finest fabrics from cotton, such that the Spaniards considered them to be silk. The Incas also knew how to spin wool, making beautiful and warm woolen clothes.

Mummy - the ruler of the Incas

In the middle of the 15th century, Huayna Capac, the new ruler of the Incas, ascended the throne. Then it seemed that the Inca dynasty was omnipotent. People could even change nature in incredible ways: during the construction of Huayna Capac's residence, workers razed the hills to the ground, drained the swamps, and moved the channel (Spanish: Rio Urubamba) to the southern part of the valley to plant cotton, corn, chili peppers and peanuts, and in in the center of the "new" territory of brick and stone to build a palace - Quispiguanca.

Around 1527, Huayna Capac died of an unknown illness. The entourage, having mummified the body, transported it to Cuzco, and members of the royal family visited the deceased, asking for advice and listening to the answers uttered by the oracle sitting next to him. Even after his death, Huayna Capac remained the master of the Quispiguanca estate. The entire harvest from the fields went to keep in luxury the mummy of the ruler, his wives, descendants and servants.

The traditions of inheritance among the Incas were such that even after the death of the rulers, all the palaces remained in their property. Therefore, each Inca, only having ascended the throne, began the construction of a new city palace and country residence. Archaeologists have discovered the ruins of up to a dozen royal residences built for at least six rulers.

Incas - Conquest by the Spaniards

In 1532, a detachment of 200 foreign conquerors landed on the coast of present-day Peru under the leadership of. They were in steel armor and armed with firearms. Along the way, those dissatisfied with the rule of the Incas joined the army. The Incas stubbornly resisted the conquerors, but the empire was weakened by internecine warfare and the fact that a large number of Inca warriors died from smallpox and measles brought by the Spaniards.

The Spaniards reached the northern city of Cajamarca, executed the ruler, placing their puppet on the throne.

Cuzco, the capital of the Incas, was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536. The invaders appropriated palaces, flourishing country estates, women and girls from the royal family. When , the last ruler of the Incas, was beheaded in 1572, it marked the end of the Tahuantinsuyu empire. The culture of the Incas was destroyed, the state was plundered. The extensive network of roads, temples and palaces gradually fell into disrepair.

There are very few sources of information regarding the history of the Incas, an ancient Indian civilization. Most of the information comes from the Spanish conquistadors and missionaries. Filippo Huaman Poma De Ayaalo - the 16th century Inca artist left one original and priceless document - these are drawings and chronicles that give a detailed description of the Inca society. Realizing that his world might disappear, Uaman Poma described all its splendor. It was his life's work. He intended to give it to King Philip II, in the hope that the monarch would see his colony in a different light and change his attitude towards it.

In his work, he also described the way of life of the Andean peoples before the arrival of the Incas - the Indians led a harsh and complex lifestyle, they were practically savages. But everything changed with the appearance of a creature that was half-man, half-god - the son of Inti, the son of God. His name is Manco Capac. He called himself "Inca" and brought civilization to his world.

He taught people to build cities and cultivate the land. Under his leadership, the Inca world began to flourish. His wife Manco Capaca Ocllo taught the women how to weave.

Such was the world of the Incas, where the same name belonged to both the ruler and his people.

100 years after the formation of the Inca Empire, in the 15th century, this state, located on the territory of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, ceased to exist. However, more on that later... The article will talk about who the Incas are.

The birth of civilization

According to legend, the sun god Inti created the ancestors of the Inca rulers. They were 4 brothers and 4 sisters who came out of the Tampu Tocco cave. Their leader was Aiyar Manco, who carried a golden staff in his hands. He had to find a place where the staff would enter the ground, which would be a sign of fertile soil.

After a long wandering, Aiyar Manco with his brothers and sisters came to the Cuzco Valley, where the staff finally entered the earth.

Having defeated the warlike locals, the brothers and sisters founded the capital of the Inca Empire. Aiyar Manco began to call himself Manco Capac, which means "ruler of the Incas". He became the first Sappa Inca (paramount chief).

Was it all like that?

Ethnologists of the National Center for Scientific Research are not completely sure of the historical existence of the first eight Incas. Rather, they were mythical characters. Due to the fact that all currently available information about the Incas is closely related to their epic.

Each family of Inca rulers had their own traditions, similar to African ones. Each generation of rulers told the story in its own way.

A significant period in the history of the Incas is associated with the ruler Pachacuti. Among other things, he was the greatest religious reformer. During his reign, the Inca people became much less dependent on the high priests of the solar religion.

Pachacuti Time

In the XII century, the Andes were inhabited by a huge number of different peoples and constantly warring tribes. Pachacuti wanted to create an empire that would unite all the Andean peoples. His name, which means "changing the world", perfectly describes his aspirations.

He united the tribes around the city of Cuzco and his goals became a reality.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the Inca Empire was attacked by the Chanca tribe. The city of Cusco is under threat. Pachacuti took command of the army and managed to repel the attack and, inspired by the victory, began military expansion.

Pachacuti seized territory in the region of Lake Titicaca and expanded the possessions of the Inca Empire of Tahuantinsuyu in the North up to the Cojamarca region.

A few words about lifestyle

Briefly, the culture of the Incas reflects their way of life. When the Incas enslaved peoples, they presented local rulers with special gifts - women and various curiosities. Thus, they made him somewhat grateful, left him in debt. In exchange for these gifts, the leaders had to pay tribute to the Incas or perform various types of work for them. From that moment on, they entered into relations that are historically called vassalage. It could be forced labor, which was called "mita", or an unequal exchange, called "ayne".

This system of relations with the captured tribes became one of the main aspects of the power of the Incas.

Creating an orderly system on such a large scale in one of the largest mountain ranges on the planet was not an easy task. The Incas needed to create collective labor, commodity exchange, a management system and ensure security. All this would not have been possible without the construction of roads.

There is no doubt that the Incas already knew what a wheel was. However, the mountain landscapes were not suitable for the use of wheeled vehicles. Even today, most travel in the Andes is done on foot. But the Incas conquered the mountain peaks, creating a developed network of communications. They built bridges in a world that literally hung between heaven and earth.

A few words about the reign of the Sappa Inca

The power of the Incas, like any other power, required an impact on the minds of people. And the majestic city of Machu Picchu, according to ethnologists, is only part of the image of power. For example, the ruler was not allowed to look in the face. His image has always been associated with sacred rituals. He was revered as the son of the Sun and was a real shrine for the people.

The power of the ruler was perpetuated after his death, when he joined all the gods and himself became a God. The Huaman Poma chronicles describe the Incas' understanding of life after death. They believed that human life force did not disappear after death. In their view, the ancestors could protect those living on earth.

Imperial capital

In the heart of the Andes, at an altitude of more than 3 thousand meters, was the city of Cuzco - the capital of the Inca Empire. In 1534, it was practically razed to the ground by the Spanish invaders. The city of Cusco is the political and spiritual center of the Inca Empire.

In addition to Cusco, there were several administrative centers; there were not so many cities in the Inca Empire. Most of the territory is small villages where the Incas lived and worked on plantations. Agriculture was the centerpiece of their economy.

rituals

To figure out who the Incas are, you should turn to their epic.

In the chronicles of Mana Poma, one of the chapters is devoted to a rather strange ritual - capacocha. During some events, such as a solar eclipse, a volcanic eruption, or epidemics, children were sacrificed to earn the favor of the spirits. It also happened that they were the children of the leaders of the tribe.

Capacocha was an important part of the political and religious cult in Cusco.

Counting system

Although the Incas did not have a written language, they used a system of knots and ropes called quipu to record numbers and possibly other information. Thanks to the decimal system, the taxation of subjects was orderly and efficient.

Taxes in the form of food were collected throughout the empire and added up to the colpos. This system provided the population with acceptable living conditions and was an important aspect in controlling the empire's economy.

They lived at high altitudes, where every 5-6 years there might not be a crop, so they just needed to stock up.

In return, the empire provided security, maintained infrastructure, and provided the inhabitants with a livelihood. For this, large warehouses with essential goods were built everywhere. Such kolpos existed in every region.

And now back to the division of land

The son of Pochacuti - Tupac Inca - continued to conquer new territories and in 1471 became the ruler. By the end of his reign, the empire extended throughout Western South America. He showed the inhabitants of neighboring tribes who the Incas were.

In 1493, the ruler was replaced by his son Huayna Capac. The wars of the new ruler on distant frontiers increased the level of discontent in the empire.

In 1502, having won a civil war, Atahualpa's army faced invaders from Europe. And although the Incas outnumbered the Europeans, Francisco Pizarro, with a small detachment of conquistadors, completely defeated their huge army. With the help of guns and horses, which the Incas had never seen before, the Spaniards were victorious. Atahualpa was taken prisoner and killed a year later.

However, according to historians, this is not the only reason for the fall of the empire. At that time, it was in the process of fragmentation and wars, which became the main reason for the collapse.

The great rise of the Inca empire was almost as fleeting as its fall. And now, unfortunately, we can find out who the Incas are from the few sources that have survived to this day.

In the western half of South America, under the equator line, on the vast plains between the Andes, lived a hardworking people who created a large civilized empire. Its kings, called the Incas, descended from the sun. It was said that, taking pity on the miserable life of the savages of the country of Peru, the sun sent its children Manco Capaca and his sister, who was also his wife, to gather them into a well-organized society, to teach agriculture, the art of spinning and weaving, and other crafts necessary for a comfortable life.

The first parts of the country to which Manco Capac and his sister introduced learning were the environs of Lake Titicaca, on the islands of which there were later colossal temples of the sun and moon, surrounded by sacred maize fields. The Inca people went to these temples on a pilgrimage. To the north stood in the beautiful valley of the Andes the sacred city of Cusco, protected by surprisingly strong walls. It was the capital of the king of the Incas; there was a magnificent temple of the sun, where pious Peruvians from all over the kingdom also came to pray. Like the Aztecs, the inhabitants of Peru did not know iron, but they knew how to build huge stone buildings. These were government buildings. The king called the people to build them. The mass of the population was in slavery to the aristocracy, whose members, in fact, called the Incas, were considered to belong to the same genus. The head of this clan was the king, whose rank was inherited by the eldest son or, if there were no sons, then to the closest relative, who had the father and mother of people of the royal family.

Growth of the Inca Empire in the reigns of its various sovereigns

Inca kings

The Inca kings, the sons of the sun, were considered sacred. They had unlimited power, appointed all rulers and judges, established taxes and laws, were high priests and commanders in chief. The nobles, whose highest rank were the Incas, members of the royal family, observed forms of special reverence in their relations with the king. The Peruvian aristocracy had a rite similar to knighthood: a young man of noble birth knelt before the king; the king pierced his ear with a golden needle. On solemn occasions, the king of the Incas appeared to the people in magnificent clothes, woven from delicate vicuña wool, decorated with gold and expensive stones. He traveled frequently throughout the state; he was carried in a rich palanquin; he was accompanied by a numerous brilliant retinue.

In all areas of the state, the kings had magnificent palaces. Their favorite residence was Yucay, a rural palace in a picturesque valley near Cusco. When the king of the Incas "departed to his father's dwelling", the entire population of the empire observed the established forms of mourning. Precious vessels, expensive garments were placed in the king's tomb, and his beloved servants and concubines were sacrificed on his coffin; the number of these victims is said to have reached several thousand people. Expensive things were also placed in the coffins of nobles; their wives and servants were also sacrificed at their funerals.

Social structure of the Inca empire

All the land of the Peruvian Empire was considered the property of the Incas. It was divided among people of all classes; the size of the plots was proportionate to class needs, but only the lower class cultivated the land. In those villages that belonged directly to the government, a third of all agricultural and industrial products belonged to the king and his family; another third went to the maintenance of temples and numerous clergy; the remaining third was annually divided in each rural community among householders in proportion to the number of souls in the family. Agriculture was under the patronage of the king. Products of agriculture and industry, including fine vicuña fabrics, were stored in the royal stores and distributed as needed.

Taxes and natural duties lay only on commoners; the nobility and clergy were free from them. A commoner in the Inca empire was obliged to work like a working animal, to regularly perform the work assigned to him, without improving his position, but he was provided from need. The people worked diligently under the supervision of overseers, the land was excellently cultivated, the mines delivered a lot of silver and gold; bridges and stone paths were built along the main roads. Many of these structures were enormous; roads were carefully repaired; all regions of the state were connected by them with Cuzco; mail went through them.

Inca City of Machu Picchu

Inca conquests

The Inca Empire was peaceful. Its kings did not forget to take care of the good organization of the army, but they loved to conquer neighboring tribes not with weapons, but with the influence of civilization, industry, by persuasion; in those cases where they made conquests, they dealt with the conquered mercifully. The purpose of the conquests was to spread the Peruvian worship and social structure. Sun temples were built in conquered areas; numerous clergy settled at the temples; the land was divided into plots, the Peruvian order of work was introduced; the rough dialects of the conquered were gradually replaced by the language of the Incas. In those areas whose population stubbornly resisted this influence, numerous Inca colonies were founded, and the former inhabitants moved en masse to other areas.

The scientists who were called amauta, were in charge of schools and kept chronicles of events through a special method of "nodular writing", called quipu. The tribes that lived near the originally small kingdom of the Incas were once hostile to it, but little by little they merged with the Peruvians into one people, assimilating the Peruvian language and submitting to the orders introduced by the Incas.

Quipu Knot Letter Sample

Service to the sun

The service of the sun in the Inca Empire was magnificent and almost completely free from human sacrifice; they were produced only occasionally and in small sizes. Usually only animals, fruits, flowers, incense were offered to the sun. Cannibalism disappeared from the Peruvians. Their main food was maize, bananas and cassava; from young maize stems they prepared an intoxicating drink, which they loved very much. Another favorite delight was chewing coca leaves, which have an opium-like effect.

In the temples of the sun, an eternal sacred fire burned, which was maintained by the maidens of the sun, who lived like nuns. There were a lot of them. Some of them were honored to enter the number of wives of the Inca king. The king and nobles were allowed polygamy; but only one wife seems to have been considered legitimate.

Inca Empire before the arrival of the Spaniards

Such was the Inca Empire when the Spaniards, led by Pizarro, came to enslave him. They marveled at the carefully cultivated cornfields of the Peruvians, the excellent products of their industry, well-built houses, usually having only one floor, to prevent harm from earthquakes, but spacious and comfortable; marveled at the huge magnificent temples, the solid walls of the fortresses; they saw a people industrious, temperate, meekly obeying the laws, which were considered the decrees of the deity.

The theocratic structure gave the state the character of an organism in which everything happens according to the law of necessity; each Peruvian was assigned his place in one caste or another, and he remained in it with resignation to fate. Commoners lived according to the rules imposed on them by the higher castes, but for their lack of freedom they were rewarded with security from want.

The fall of the Inca Empire - a civilization that inherited the achievements of the more ancient peoples of South America.
The fall of the Inca Empire - a civilization that inherited the achievements of the more ancient peoples of South America.

National motto: Ama llulla, ama suwa, ama qilla (Don't lie, don't steal, don't be lazy) Inca Empire, Tawantinsuyu (Tawantin Suyu, Tawantinsuyu)

Chronology

Even before the rise of the Incas to their power, several other cultures flourished in the vast Andean region. The first hunters and fishermen appeared here at least 12,000 years ago, and by 3000 BC. e. fishing villages strewn all this waterless coast. In the fertile valleys at the foot of the Andes and green oases in the desert, small rural communities arose.

Thousands of years later, larger social groups of people penetrated deep into the territory. Having overcome the high mountain peaks, they began to settle on the eastern slopes of the range, using the same irrigation methods that they had developed on the coast to irrigate their fields and harvest. Settlements sprang up around the temple complexes, and artisans produced increasingly sophisticated pottery and textiles.

Archaeologists classify the products of Andean artisans according to the time and geographical period of their distribution. For this, the term “horizons” is used to identify the main stages of stylistic uniformity, violated by some features, from the point of view of aesthetics and technology.

Early colonial period: 1532 - 1572 AD

Early horizon: 1400 - 400 AD BC.

Named after the temple center at Chavin de Huantar, located in a small northern valley on the eastern slopes of the Andes, the Chavin style, strongly associated with a powerful emerging new religion, arose around 1400 BC. e. and reached its peak of development and influence by 400 BC. e.

This religion, which is believed to have been built on the leading role of an oracle, supposedly able to foresee the future, overcome diseases and make requests to the gods, gradually spread south. By 1000 B.C. she reached the area of ​​modern Lima, and by 500 BC. - Ayacucho, located two hundred miles inland. From Chavin de Huantar, apparently, priests were sent to other communities in order to achieve the worship of deities such as this god with a rod, so named because he holds a scepter (a symbol of power) in his hands.

The Chavin people achieved significant technological progress and even made some advanced discoveries for those times. The Chavins invented the loom and experimented with various metallurgical techniques, such as welding, soldering, and making alloys of gold and silver. Their products include large metal sculptures, as well as fabrics made of dyed yarn depicting such images of the Chavin cult as a god with a grinning jaguar and other animals living in the Amazon valley.

Early Intermediate Period: 400 BC - 550 AD

Various local styles began to emerge along the southern coast of Peru. The two most characteristic features of the so-called Paracas culture, named after the Paracas peninsula, were beautiful fabrics and bottle-shaped tombs - up to 40 bodies could be placed in each room of such a crypt.

Another people, the Nazca, cultivated land in the valleys, located 200 miles south of the modern capital of Peru, Lima. By 370 B.C. the Nazca style dominated the southwest coast, leaving its most prominent mark in pottery. The Nazca are famous for their enigmatic, puzzling Nazca Lines, huge land paintings. To do this, they removed all the stones and gravel in a certain area, exposing soils that were more faded in color, after which they scattered the collected stones with gravel in heaps along its edges. Such "lines" probably had some meaning to the religion of the Nazca people.

On the northern coast of Peru around 100 B.C. a militant Moche culture arose. She extended her control over territories up to 150 miles along the coast. The Moche Indians developed a whole metallurgical complex, created monumental buildings from sun-dried raw brick (adoba), they developed their own original style, which was most reflected in vessels with realistic portraits.

Middle horizon: 550 - 900 years. AD

The chulpas burial towers, still preserved in their original form, rise on one of the mountain slopes near Lake Titicaca. The practice of burials on the territory of the empire varied greatly from one region to another, differing also on a social basis. These tombs, belonging to the local nobility, are built on stone slabs laid without mortar of the highest quality. they were built in the middle of the second millennium AD. and were badly damaged by earthquakes.

The era of big cities has arrived. On the shores of Lake Titicaca, at 12,500 feet, pyramids and mounds of stone appeared, adorned with fine stone carvings, as seen in the depiction of the god (right), believed to be a new interpretation of the old Chavin wand-wielding god. The people who built all these structures settled in this region around 100 BC. and began to build around 100 AD. city ​​of Tiahuanaco.

By 500 AD e. Tiwanakans already dominated the territory of the Southern Andes, and after five hundred years they disappeared altogether. During their hegemony, they created distant colonies, declared their lands adjacent to the shores of Lake Titicaca, and sent trade caravans of lamas along the coast.

Meanwhile, the small village of Huari, located 600 miles to the north, was gradually turning into a city. During its heyday, it had between 35,000 and 70,000 inhabitants, their homes supplied with water through an underground plumbing system.

Weaving was one of the most common occupations. The Huari people disappeared around 900 AD, but they left behind an important legacy - the concept of a centralized state and recommendations for its creation.

Late Intermediate Period (coastal): 900 - 1476 AD

Empires that collapsed one after another marked the onset of a period of internecine wars, during which small peoples, spurred on by the examples of the Huari people, tried to create their own metropolises.

Starting from the center of what once belonged to the Moi on the north coast of Peru, the Chimu gradually consolidated more than 600 miles of coastline in their new state. From a hot desert capital city of Chan Chan, well supplied with water and irrigation, with a population of 36,000, the Chimu lords ruled a strictly class-separated society in which skilled artisans were especially respected.

The Chimu Empire grew in strength, thanks to the complex irrigation system they created, as well as the conquest of neighboring cultures such as Chankei, Ika-Chinka and Sikan. The culture of Sikan can be judged by the knife for ritual ceremonies. When their culture reached its peak, the Chimú were able to decorate clothes and household items with elaborate gold patterns, creating fabrics of amazing beauty.

And so they had to enter into a struggle for power with their rivals, the Incas.

Late Intermediate Period (mountainous regions): 900 - 1476 AD

‘Huaca’ are the sacred places of the Incas.
"Kenko" - one of the largest "huaca" in the Cusco region. A semi-circular wall of smooth large stones laid in a row only emphasizes the natural monolithic limestone rock, this is the main center for religious worship in Kenko. In the cave adjacent to the wall there is an altar carved into the rock.

Descendants of a people who settled in the Cuzco Valley, located at an altitude of more than 11,000 feet above sea level, the Incas began to develop their culture only after 1200 AD, as evidenced by the jar (right). Although the capital city of Cuzco grew steadily, their power remained rather limited. Then in 1438 Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui seized the throne. Calling himself "Earth Shaker", he and his troops made a campaign across all the Andes, conquering some states, negotiating with others, trying to unite several neighboring countries into a single powerful empire. Pachacuti rebuilt Cuzco, turning the capital into a city with beautiful stone palaces and temples. His provinces were governed by numerous disciplined, well-functioning bureaucrats, who stood in defense of the interests of the state. His successor, the son of Topa Inca, who came to power in 1471, dealt such a crushing blow to the Chimu that he secured complete control over the whole of this vast region, stretching from Ecuador to the heart of Chile.

Late horizon: 1476 - 1532 AD

Having consolidated their power, the Incas achieved an unprecedented rise in culture. Armies marched along the extensive road network and trade was carried out. The art of gold forging, ceramics and weaving have reached incredible beauty and perfection. Stoneworkers created massive buildings from huge stone blocks precisely and tightly fitted to each other. The Inca nobility, represented by the statuette on the right, ruled the Andes until the death of Emperor Huayn Capac, who died of smallpox between 1525 and 1527. Soon his successor also died, leaving open the question of succession to the throne, which led to a civil war. It ended in 1532, when one of the two rival sons of Huayna Capac Atahualpa was victorious and Huáscar imprisoned.

By this time, a Spaniard named Francisco Pizarro had made his exploratory journey along the coast of the Inca Empire. Having only two hundred fighters at his disposal, he took advantage of the civil strife, the smallpox epidemic and attacked the Inca troops, captured Atahualpa himself and executed him.

Early colonial period: 1532 - 1572 AD

Pizarro and his gang of adventurers approached Cusco in 1533 and were simply amazed by the unprecedented beauty of this city. The Spaniards put Atahualpa's half-brother Manco Inca on the throne to rule the Inca empire through him.

However, Manco Inca did not become a puppet in the hands of the conquerors and soon led a popular revolt. In the end, he was forced to flee Cuzco, where Pizarro himself now ruled until he was killed in 1541 by supporters of his main rival. A year later, the viceroy arrived in Lima to rule the Andean territories as Spanish provinces.

In 1545, the Spaniards captured Manco Inca, who was still emperor to several thousand Incas, who took refuge with him in the dense jungle, where they built the city of Vilcabamba. Manco Inca was killed. His son Tupac Amaru, the last Inca emperor, tried to resist the Spanish, but it was broken when the Spanish captured his main base at Vilcabamba in 1572.

Fall of the Inca Empire.

Conquistadors have always been attracted to the sound of gold. William H. Powell, photograph by the Architect of the Capitol.

Francisco Pissarro arrived in America in 1502 in search of fortune. For seven years he served in the Caribbean, participating in military campaigns against the Indians.

In 1524, Pissarro, together with Diego de Almagro and the priest Hernando de Luque, organized an expedition to the undiscovered territories of South America. But its participants fail to find anything interesting.

In 1526, a second expedition took place, during which Pissarro exchanged gold from local residents. During this expedition, three Incas were captured by the Spaniards in order to make translators out of them. This expedition turned out to be very difficult, and illness and hunger fell to their lot.

In 1527, Pissarro entered the Inca city of Tumbes. From the locals, he learns about the large amount of gold and silver decorating gardens and temples in the depths of their lands. Realizing that military forces are needed to obtain these riches, Pissarro travels to Spain and turns to Charles V for help. He talks about the countless treasures of the Incas, which can be quite easy to get. Charles V gives Pissarro the title of governor and captain of the governor of all the lands that he manages to conquer and control.

Even before the Spanish conquest began, the Incas suffered from the arrival of Europeans on their continent. Smallpox mowed down entire families among the natives who did not have immunity to it.

Around the same time, Huayna Capaca (Sapa Inca) dies. The highest state position should go to one of the sons from the main wife. The one of the sons who, in the opinion of the monarch, could better cope with the duties was chosen. In Cuzco, the capital of the Incas, the nobility proclaims the new Sapa Inca - Huascara, which means "sweet hummingbird".

The problem was that the previous Sapa Inca spent the last years of his life in Quito. As a result, most of the court lived in Quito. The city developed into a second capital, dividing the tribal chiefs into two rival factions. The army stationed in Quito gave preference to another son of Huayna Capac - Atahualpa, which means "wild turkey" in translation. He spent most of his life next to his father on the battlefield. He was a man of sharp mind. Later, the Spaniards marveled at the speed with which he mastered the game of chess. At the same time, he was merciless, as evidenced by the fear of the courtiers to incur his wrath.

Atahualpa showed loyalty to the new Sapa Inca. But he refused to come to his brother's court, perhaps fearing that Huascar saw him as a dangerous rival. In the end, Sapa Inca demanded the presence of his brother by his side at court. Refusing the invitation, Atahualpa sent ambassadors in his place with expensive gifts. Huascar, perhaps under the influence of courtiers hostile to his brother, tortured his brother's men. After killing them, he sent his army to Quito, ordering Atahualpa to be brought to Cuzco by force. Atahualpa called his loyal warriors to arms.

The armies of Cuzco at first even managed to capture a recalcitrant brother. But he managed to escape and join his own. In the battle, Atahualpa defeated those who captured him. Huascar urgently gathers a second army and sends it to his brother. The poorly trained recruits were no match for Atahualpa's veterans, and were defeated in two days' fighting.

As a result, Atahualpa captures Huascar and triumphantly enters Cuzco, after which a brutal massacre was committed against the wives, friends and advisers of the unfortunate brother.

In 1532, Pissarro and Almagro returned to Tumbes along with 160 well-armed adventurers. On the site of the once flourishing city, they found only ruins. It suffered greatly from the epidemic, and then from the civil war. For five months, Pissarro moved along the coast, plundering imperial warehouses along the way.

As a result, Pissarro goes to the court of Atahualpa. Nine of his men, frightened by the prospect of being in mountainous terrain, turned back in Inca territory.

The Spaniards were surprised by the roads of the Incas, paved with stone slabs, with trees planted along the edges, creating a shadow, as well as canals lined with stone.

Learning about the movement of white people within his country, Atahualpa invites them to visit him. From the words of the ambassador, he understood that the Spaniards looked and were friendly. During a meeting with the ambassador, Pissarro made gifts to the monarch and talked a lot about peace.

Pissarro placed his men in an open area, in the main square of the city of Cajamarck. He sent Hernando de Soto to pay his respects to Atahualpa, so that he tried to seduce him with his offer to meet in person.

Atahualpa reproached the Spaniards for plundering his warehouses and for neglecting some of the Indians on the coast. To which the Spaniards began to praise their martial art and offered to use their services. Atahualpa agrees to pay a visit to Pissarro in Cajamarca.

During this meeting, Hernando de Soto, wanted to scare Atahualpa and almost ran over him on his horse, stopping in close proximity to him, so that drops of the saliva of the horse fell on the clothes of the Inca. But Atahualpa did not flinch. He later ordered the execution of those courtiers who showed fear.

Pissarro, following the example of Cortes, who conquered the mighty Aztec empire by kidnapping the emperor, began to prepare his ambush.

During the night, Atahualpa sent 5,000 warriors to block the road north of Cajamarca. According to the plan he developed, as he later admitted to the Spaniards, he wanted to capture Pissarro and all his warriors alive in order to sacrifice the god of the Sun - Inti, and leave their horses for breeding.

At dawn, Pissarro posted his men in the buildings around the square. The wait was agonizing for the Spaniards, as the tenfold numerical superiority of the Incas frightened and overwhelmed. Later, as one of the eyewitnesses admitted, "many Spaniards unconsciously urinated in their pants because of the horror that bound them."

Capture of Atahualpa
Duflos, Pierre, 1742-1816, engraver.

At sunset, the imperial procession approached the square. Atahualpa was carried by 80 servants on a wooden stretcher, inlaid with gold and decorated on all sides with parrot feathers. The monarch, dressed in robes with gold threads and all in jewelry, sat holding a golden shield with the heraldic image of the Sun in his hands. There were also dancers and accompanying musicians. His retinue numbered more than 5,000 soldiers (the main forces, about 80,000 soldiers, were outside the city). They all came unarmed.

In the square they saw only one Dominican monk in a cassock with a cross in one and a Bible in the other hand. The Royal Council in Spain decided that the pagans should be given the opportunity to accept Christianity voluntarily, without bloodshed, and the conquistadors decided not to violate the letter of the law. The monk explained the meaning of the Christian faith to the ruler of the Incas, and the interpreter explained to him that he was asked to accept the religion of strangers. “You say that your God accepted death,” Atahualpa replied, “but mine still lives,” he emphasized, pointing to the sun creeping beyond the horizon.

Atahualpa took in his hands the prayer book extended to him. As far as he understood, the Spaniards valued this thing in the same way as the Indians "huaca", a talisman in which the spirit of the gods was found. But this object seemed to him a toy compared to their huge stone "huaca", which the Incas worshiped, so he threw it on the ground. According to eyewitnesses, after that the monk turned to Pissarro and said to him and his people: “You can attack them after this. I forgive you all your sins in advance."

Musician with flute. This product shows us the high art of chimu in the field of metal processing with the help of techniques. Such figurines were forged in parts, which were then soldered together. The musician holds his flute in his tattooed hands.

Pissarro gave the signal to attack. Two cannons fired a volley into the crowd of Indians. Spanish horsemen, fully armed, left the buildings and attacked the unarmed Inca warriors. They were followed by the sound of trumpets infantrymen with a battle cry - "Santiago!" (the name of the saint helping, according to the Spaniards, to defeat the enemy).

It was a brutal massacre of unarmed Indians. Pissarro with difficulty pulled Atahualpa out of her. Within a few hours, 6,000 Inca warriors perished in and around Cajamarca, but not a single Spaniard was killed. Among the few wounded was Pissarro himself, who was wounded by his own soldier when he tried to break through to the royal enemy in order to capture him alive.

Many researchers tried to understand why Atahualpa made such a fatal mistake by going out to the Spaniards with unarmed soldiers. Perhaps the leader did not even consider such a variant of the course of events, when such a small detachment would try to attack his huge army. Or he believed in the speech of the Spaniards about the world.

In captivity, Atahualpa was allowed to retain all royal privileges. All his wives and servants were near him. The nobles came to him and carried out his orders. In less than a month, he learned to speak Spanish and even write a little.

Realizing that white people were attracted by gold, he decided to pay off, offering for his freedom to fill the rooms in which he was staying with gold, and also “fill the Indian hut with silver” twice. Instead of releasing Atahualpa, he signed his death warrant with such a proposal. By ordering to break all the gold in Cuzco, and delivering it to the Spaniards, he only ignited their passion for the precious metal. At the same time, fearing that his brother would be able to offer even more gold for his freedom, he ordered his execution. The Incas did not perceive gold and silver as something valuable. For them, it was just beautiful metal. They called gold "sweat of the sun" and silver "tears of the moon". For them, fabrics were valuable, as it took a lot of time to make them.

Knife for ritual ceremonies. Ritual knife Tumi with a gold handle and a silver blade and decorated with turquoise. The god Naimlap is depicted with a semicircular headdress and a pair of wings.

The Spaniards began to suspect that Atahualpa was plotting against them. This gave rise to panic fear in their ranks. Pissarro for a long time resisted the mood of his compatriots. But in the end, the panic broke his resolute attitude.

Atahualpa began to realize the inevitability of his death. His religion guaranteed him eternal life if the rite was properly performed.

At a meeting of the council, headed by Pissarro himself, it was decided to burn Atahualpa. When the Spaniards informed the leader of their decision, he burst into tears. The destruction of the body meant the deprivation of immortality.

The monk, before his death, once again tried to convert the pagan to the Christian faith. Realizing that if he converted to Christianity, he would not be burned, but strangled with a garrote (a hoop with a screw to slowly strangle the victim), he agreed to undergo an initiation ceremony, assuming that the body would be handed over to the people for mummification. But the Spaniards deceived him here too. After the chief was strangled, they burned his clothes and part of his body at the stake. The rest they buried in the ground.

Pissarro understood what benefits a local ruler under Spanish control promised him. He opted for Huayna Capac's son, Manco Inca. When the Spaniards arrived in Cuzco, they were greeted as well-wishers who restored the legitimate ruling branch of the Incas, although all the mummies were securely hidden before their appearance.

The conquistadors were not distinguished by generosity and in every possible way humiliated Manco, showing a disregard for the customs of the Incas. The worst happened when Pissarro traveled to the ocean coast to establish a new capital, Limo. He left his brothers Gonzalo and Juan in charge. Gonzalo treated Manco with undisguised contempt. Having kidnapped his beloved wife, he abused her.

The atrocities perpetrated by the Spaniards led to the fact that Manco flatly refused to cooperate and attempted to leave Cuzco. The Spaniards returned him to the capital in chains. In conclusion, they were subjected to various kinds of humiliation.
As a result, Manco persuades one of Francisco's brothers, Hernando, who had recently arrived in Cusco from Spain, to release him temporarily from prison so that he could pray in the sanctuary, for which he promised to give a golden statue depicting his father. As soon as Manco got out of Cuzco, he called on his people to revolt. The matter ended with the siege of Cuzco, which lasted almost a whole year. During this siege, there were traitors among the Indians both in Cuzco and beyond, who secretly carried food to the invaders. Among them were even relatives of Manco himself, who feared reprisal for their former support for the Europeans by the new ruler. The hopelessness of the siege became clear when reinforcements arrived from Spain. Some supporters of Manco even broke away from him, realizing that a good moment had been lost.

After the failure of the siege of Cuzco, Manco took 20,000 of his compatriots with him into the dense jungle. There they built the new city of Vilcabamba in a short time. It covered an area of ​​about two square miles and consisted of about three hundred houses and sixty monumental structures. There were convenient roads and canals.

From this city, the Incas sometimes raided the conquerors, attacking outposts. In 1572, the Spaniards decided to do away with this last stronghold, as evidence of the former power of the natives. When they reached Vilcabamba, they found only deserted ruins on the site of the city. The defenders burned it before leaving the city. The Spaniards continued the pursuit, penetrating further and further into the jungle. As a result, they captured the last leader of the Incas, Tupac Amaru. He was brought to Cusco and beheaded in the town square. Thus ended the dynasty of the Inca rulers.

The result of the fifty-year stay of the Spaniards was the reduction of the indigenous population - by three quarters. Many died from diseases brought from the Old World, and many from hard labor.

Huge amounts of gold and silver were exported to Spain. Art objects were usually melted down before export. The most beautiful products were delivered to the court of Charles V, then they were put on public display in Seville. When Charles began to lack funds for military campaigns, these outstanding works of Inca art were ordered to be melted down.

Literature:
A. Varkin, L. Zdanovich, "Secrets of Disappeared Civilizations", M. 2000.
The Incas: Lords of Gold and Heirs of Glory, translated from English by L. Kanevsky, M., Terra, 1997.